South Ossetia

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Republic of
South Ossetia
Хуссар Ирыстон / Khussar Iryston (Ossetic)
სამხრეთი ოსეთი / Samkhreti Oseti (Georgian)
Южная Осетия / Yuzhnaya Osetiya (Russian)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: National Anthem of South Ossetia
Map of South Ossetia
South Ossetia (green circled in red)
Capital Tskhinvali
42°14′N 43°58′E / 42.233°N 43.967°E / 42.233; 43.967
Official languages Ossetic, Georgian Russian1
Recognised regional languages Georgian
Government
 -  President Eduard Kokoity
 -  Prime Minister Aslanbek Bulatsev
Independence from Georgia
 -  Declared 28 November 1991 
 -  Recognition (by the Russian Federation) 26 August 2008 
Area
 -  Total 3,900 km2 
1,506 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) negligible
Population
 -  2000 estimate 70,000 
 -  Density 18/km2 
46.6/sq mi
Currency Russian ruble (RUB)
Time zone (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
1 Russian language is "official language of government authorities, public administration and local self-government".

South Ossetia (pronounced /ɒˈsɛtɪə/[1] or /ɒˈsiːʃə/[2]; Ossetic: Хуссар Ирыстон, Xussar Iryston; Russian: Южная Осетия, Yuzhnaya Osetiya; Georgian: სამხრეთი ოსეთი, Samxreti Oseti) is a disputed region in the South Caucasus, located on the territory of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast within the former Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The Republic of South Ossetia declared its independence from Georgia in 1991 during the Georgian-Ossetian conflict.[3] However, the entity remained unrecognized, save by fellow break-away republics Abkhazia and Transnistria. Since the 2008 South Ossetian war, during which the republic gained full control of the territory of the former Autonomous Oblast, Russia and Nicaragua have recognized South Ossetia's independence. Georgia does not recognize the secession of the province nor its existence as an autonomous entity, and considers it to be a part of the Shida Kartli region within its sovereign territory. The United States, European Union, along with many other countries consider the territory of South Ossetia a part of Georgia and do not recognize South Ossetia as an independent state.[4][5][6][7][8] Since 28 August 2008, Georgia has been considering the region to be a "Russian-occupied territory."[9]

Contents

[edit] Political status

Map of Georgia highlighting South Ossetia (purple) and Abkhazia (green)
Main article: International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia
Main article: Foreign relations of South Ossetia

The European Union, Council of Europe, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and most UN member countries do not recognize South Ossetia as an independent state. The de facto republic governed by the secessionist government held a second independence referendum[10] on 12 November 2006, after its first referendum in 1992 was not recognized by most governments as valid.[11] According to the Tskhinvali election authorities, the referendum turned out a majority for independence from Georgia where 99% of South Ossetian voters supported independence and the turnout for the vote was 95%[12]. The referendum was monitored by a team of 34 international observers from Germany, Austria, Poland, Sweden and other countries at 78 polling stations.[13] However, it was not recognized internationally by the UN, European Union, OSCE, NATO and the Russian Federation, given the lack of ethnic Georgian participation and the legality of such a referendum without recognition from the Georgian government in Tbilisi.[14] The European Union, OSCE and NATO condemned the referendum.

Parallel to the secessionist held referendum and elections, the Ossetian opposition movement (People of South Ossetia for Peace) to Eduard Kokoity, the current President of South Ossetia, organized their own elections in contemporaneously Georgian-controlled areas within South Ossetia, in which Georgian and some Ossetian inhabitants of the region voted in favour of Dmitry Sanakoyev as the alternative President of South Ossetia.[15] The alternative elections of Sanakoyev claimed full support of the ethnic Georgian population.[citation needed]

In April 2007, Georgia created the Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia[16][17][18][19] and staffed by ethnic Ossetian members of the separatist movement. Dmitry Sanakoyev was assigned as the leader of the Entity. It was intended that this provisional administration would negotiate with central Georgian authorities regarding its final status and conflict resolution.[20] On 10 May 2007, Sanakoyev was appointed by the President of Georgia as the Head of South Ossetian Provisional Administrative Entity.

On July 13, 2007, Georgia set up a state commission, chaired by the Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli, to develop South Ossetia's autonomous status within the Georgian state. According to the Georgian officials, the status was to be elaborated within the framework of "an all-inclusive dialogue" with all the forces and communities within the Ossetian society.[21]

Russian Presidential Decree No. 1261 recognising South Ossetian independence
 The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (March 2009)

At about midnight (Tbilisi/Moscow/Tskhinvali time, EST +8) of 8 August, 2008, [22], Georgian armed forces moved forward to South Ossetia to take control of Tskhinvali and "restore constitutional order in the entire region". The Georgian operation started eight hours after Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili pledged a ceasefire to South Ossetians, and included hours of artillery bombardment of Tskhinvali, during which, according to Amnesty International, "over 100 civilian houses were hit". [23]. 13 Russian servicemen of the peacekeeping force stationed in the city under UN mandate were killed during the first hours, the Russian Ministry of Defence stated on 8 August.[24] Russian troops moved into South Ossetia as part of a "peace enforcement" operation, pushing the Georgian army out of South Ossetia and moving farther, occupying Gori, Kareli, Kaspi and Igoeti in Georgia proper. Parallel to these events Russian forces also entered western Georgia from another breakaway region of Abkhazia occupying Zugdidi, Senaki and the major Georgian port of Poti. Following the end of hostilities, the Federation Council of Russia called an extraordinary session for 25 August 2008 to discuss recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[25] On 25 August the Federation Council unanimously voted to ask the Russian President to recognise independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia.[26] The Russian parliament voted in favour of this motion the following day. This unilateral recognition by Russia was met by condemnation from Western countries and other members of the United Nations (France, Germany, Great Britain, United States, etc), NATO, OSCE, the European Council due to the violation of Georgia's territorial integrity, as well as United Nations numerous resolutions.[5][6][7][8] This was in stark contrast to their swift recognition of Kosovo not long before. On 29 August, Georgia severed diplomatic relations with Russia over the conflict.[27] The EU's diplomatic response to the news was delayed by disagreements between Eastern European states and the UK wanting a harsher response and Germany, France, and other states' desire not to isolate Russia.[28] Former US envoy Richard Holbrooke said the conflict could encourage separatist movements in other former Soviet states along Russia's western border.[29]

On August 30, 2008, Tarzan Kokoity, the Deputy Speaker of South Ossetia's parliament, announced that the region would "soon" be absorbed into Russia, so that South and North Ossetians could live together in "one united Russian state".[30] Russian and South Ossetian forces began giving residents in Akhalgori, the biggest town in the predominantly ethnic Georgian eastern part of South Ossetia, the choice of accepting Russian citizenship or leaving.[31] However, Eduard Kokoity, the current president of South Ossetia, later stated that South Ossetia would not forgo its independence by joining Russia: “We are not going to say no to our independence, which has been achieved at the expense of many lives; South Ossetia has no plans to join Russia." Civil Georgia has said that this statement contradicts previous ones made by Kokoity earlier that day, when he indicated that South Ossetia would join North Ossetia in the Russian Federation.[30][32]

On September 5, 2008, Nicaragua became the second country — the first being Russia — to recognize South Ossetia and Abkhazia. [33]

[edit] History

[edit] Medieval and early modern period

 The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed.
The dispute is about the map.
Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page before making changes.(July 2009)

The Ossetians are originally descendants of the Alans, a Sarmatian tribe. They became Christians during the early Middle Ages, under the Byzantine, Georgian and since 1767 Russian influences. Under Mongol rule, they were pushed out of their medieval homeland south of the Don River in present-day Russia and part migrated towards and over the Caucasus mountains (into the kingdom of Georgia and into the lands of present-day North Ossetia-Alania),[34] where they formed three distinct territorial entities. Digor in the west came under the influence of the neighboring Kabard people, who introduced Islam. Kudar in the south became what is now South Ossetia, part of the historical Georgian principality of Samachablo[35] where Ossetians found refuge from Mongol invaders. Iron in the north became what is now North Ossetia, under Russian rule from 1767. The vast majority of the Ossetians are Orthodox Christians; there is also a significant Muslim minority.

[edit] South Ossetia as a part of the Soviet Union

Former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast is grey. Note that its borders do not exactly match any of the current official administrative region of Georgia.

The modern-day South Ossetia joined Russia in 1801, along with Georgia proper, and absorbed into the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, South Ossetia became a part of the Menshevik Georgian Democratic Republic, while the North Ossetia became a part of the Terek Soviet Republic. "The Georgian Menshevik government accused Ossetians of cooperating with Russian Bolsheviks. A series of Ossetian rebellions took place between 1918 and 1920 during which claims were made to an independent territory. Violence broke out in 1920 when Georgian Mensheviks sent National Guards and regular army units to Tskhinvali to crush the uprisings. Ossetian sources claim that about 5,000 Ossetians were killed and more than 13,000 subsequently died from hunger and epidemics"[36]

The Soviet Georgian government established by the Russian 11th Red Army in 1921 created the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast (i.e., province) in April 1922. Although the Ossetians had their own language (Ossetian), Russian and Georgian were administrative/state languages.[37] Under the rule of Georgia's government during Soviet times, it enjoyed some degree of autonomy including speaking the Ossetian language and teaching it in schools.[37]

[edit] Georgian-Ossetian conflict

Main article: Georgian-Ossetian conflict

[edit] 1989–2008

Map of South Ossetia, November 2004
Hatched shading shows Georgian-controlled areas in South Ossetia in June 2007, according to JPKF.[38]
The monument to the victims of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict in Tskhinvali, in 2003.

The tensions in the region began to rise amid the rising nationalism among both Georgians and Ossetians in 1989. Before this, the two communities of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast of Georgian SSR had been living in peace with each other except for the 1918-1920 events. Both ethnicities have had a high level of interaction and high rates of intermarriages.[citation needed]

The influential South Ossetian Popular Front (Ademon Nykhas) was created in 1988. On 10 November 1989, the South Ossetian regional council asked the Georgian Supreme Council (in Russian: Верховный Совет Грузии) for the region to be upgraded to that of "autonomous republic". In 1989 the Georgian Supreme Council established Georgian as the principal language countrywide.[36]

The Georgian Supreme Council adopted a law barring regional parties in summer 1990. This was interpreted by Ossetians as a move against Ademon Nykhas and led to Ossetians proclaiming South Ossetia as the South Ossetian Democratic Republic on September 20, 1990,[39][40] fully sovereign within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Ossetians boycotted subsequent Georgian parliamentary elections and held their own contest in December. The Georgian government headed by Zviad Gamsakhurdia declared this election illegitimate and abolished South Ossetia's autonomous status altogether on 11 December 1990.[36]

Violent conflict broke out towards the end of 1991 during which many South Ossetian villages were attacked and burned down as were Georgian houses and schools in Tskhinvali, the capital of South Ossetia. As a result, approximately 1,000 died and about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled the territory and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia and settled in other parts of Georgia.[41] Many South Ossetians were resettled in uninhabited areas of North Ossetia from which the Ingush had been expelled by Stalin in 1944, leading to conflicts between Ossetians and Ingush over the right of residence in former Ingush territory.

The western part of South Ossetia was affected by the 1991 Racha-Java earthquake, which killed 200 and left 300 families homeless.

In 1992, Georgia accepted a ceasefire to avoid a large scale confrontation with Russia. The government of Georgia and South Ossetian separatists reached an agreement to avoid the use of force against one another, and Georgia pledged not to impose sanctions against South Ossetia. However, the Georgian government still retained control over substantial portions of South Ossetia, including the town of Akhalgori.[42] A peacekeeping force of Ossetians, Russians and Georgians was established. On 6 November 1992, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) set up a Mission in Georgia to monitor the peacekeeping operation. From then until mid-2004 South Ossetia was generally peaceful. In June 2004, serious tensions began to rise as the Georgian authorities strengthened their efforts to bring the region back under Tbilisi rule, and established an alternative pro-Georgian government for South Ossetia in Tbilisi. [43] Hostage takings, shootouts and occasional bombings left dozens dead and wounded. A ceasefire deal was reached on 13 August though it was repeatedly violated. Presently the situation is tense with war escalating. Moscow and Tskhinvali viewed the recent Georgian military build-up with concern.

Georgian Snipers in South Ossetia

The Georgian government protests against the continually increasing Russian economic and political presence in the region and against the uncontrolled military of the South Ossetian side. It also considers the peacekeeping force to be non-neutral and demanded its replacement.[44] This criticism was supported, by the U.S. senator Richard Lugar[45] EU South Caucasus envoy Peter Semneby said later that "Russia's actions in the Georgia spy row have damaged its credibility as a neutral peacekeeper in the EU's Black Sea neighbourhood."[46] Most recently, Joseph Biden (Chairman, U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee), Richard Lugar, and Mel Martinez sponsored a resolution accusing Russia of attempting to undermine Georgia's territorial integrity and called for replacing the Russian-manned peacekeeping force operating under CIS mandate.[47]

[edit] 2008 War

Main article: 2008 South Ossetia war
Russian soldiers and South Ossetian militiamen in Java during the war
South Ossetian military parade in Tskhinvali after the war

The prelude to the conflict began with violent clashes on Wednesday, 6 August 2008 with both sides claiming having been fired upon by the other. The Georgian interior ministry claimed Georgian forces had returned fire only after South Ossetian positions shelled Georgian-controlled villages and accused the South Ossetian side of "trying to create an illusion of serious escalation, an illusion of war."[48] South Ossetia denied provoking the conflict.[49][50]

Over the course of several days in early August, the Georgians secretly concentrated a significant number of troops and equipment, including the full 2nd, 3rd and 4th Infantry Brigades, the Artillery Brigade, the elements of the 1st Infantry Brigade, the separate Gori Tank Battalion, among others — all in all, up to 16,000 men — in the Georgian enclaves in the South Ossetian conflict zone, under cover of providing support for the exchange of fire with Ossetian formations." [51][neutrality disputed]

On 7 August, Georgian and Ossetian forces agreed on a ceasefire[52].

However, in the first hours of 8 August 2008, Georgia launched a massive attack, which started the 2008 South Ossetia war. After a prolonged artillery onslaught, Georgian troops with tanks and air support entered South Ossetian-controlled territory.[53][54][55] On the same day, twelve Russian peacekeepers were killed and nearly 150 injured.[56]

Erosi Kitsmarishvili, Georgia's former ambassador to Moscow and a confidant of President Mikheil Saakashvili, testified to the Parliament of Georgia that Georgian officials told him in April 2008 that they planned to start a war in Abkhazia, one of two breakaway regions at issue in the war, and had received a green light from the United States government to do so. He said the Georgian government later decided to start the war in South Ossetia, the other region, and continue into Abkhazia.[57]

The Russian Prime-Minister Vladimir Putin said that the Russian Government condemns the "aggressive actions" by Georgian troops in South Ossetia[58] and that, under such circumstances, it would be "legitimate and even necessary" for Russia to retaliate.[59] Heavy fighting was reported in Tskhinvali for most of 8 August, with Georgian forces attempting to push Ossetians slowly from the city.[60] The following day, Russia deployed forces into South Ossetia to remove Georgian forces from South Ossetia. Additionally, Russia targeted Georgia's military infrastructure to reduce Georgia's ability to conduct another incursion.

On 22 August, following a negotiated cease-fire between Georgia and Russia, Russia pulled its forces back to Russia and South Ossetia, leaving military contingents disbursed throughout various areas as observation and security posts. These were withdrawn by 8 October.

[edit] Politics

South Ossetia

This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
South Ossetia

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Until the armed conflict of August 2008, South Ossetia consisted of a checkerboard of Georgian-inhabited and Ossetian-inhabited towns and villages.[61] The largely Ossetian capital city of Tskhinvali and most of the other Ossetian-inhabited communities were governed by the separatist government, while the Georgian-inhabited villages and towns were administered by the Georgian government. This close proximity and the intermixing of the two communities has made the Georgian–Ossetian conflict particularly dangerous, since any attempt to create an ethnically pure territory would involve population transfers on a large scale.

The political dispute has yet to be resolved and the South Ossetian separatist authorities govern the region with effective independence from Tbilisi. Although talks have been held periodically between the two sides, little progress was made under the government of Eduard Shevardnadze (1993–2003). His successor Mikheil Saakashvili (elected 2004) made the reassertion of Georgian governmental authority a political priority. Having successfully put an end to the de facto independence of the southwestern province of Ajaria in May 2004, he pledged to seek a similar solution in South Ossetia. After the 2004 clashes, the Georgian government has intensified its efforts to bring the problem to international attention. On 25 January 2005, President Saakashvili presented a Georgian vision for resolving the South Ossetian conflict at the PACE session in Strasbourg. Late in October, the U.S. Government and the OSCE expressed their support to the Georgian action plan presented by Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli at the OSCE Permanent Council at Vienna on 27 October 2005. On 6 December, the OSCE Ministerial Council in Ljubljana adopted a resolution supporting the Georgian peace plan[62] which was subsequently rejected by the South Ossetian de facto authorities.

In 2009, South Ossetia was ranked near the bottom of Freedom House's list of repressive countries and disputed territories, together with countries like China, Cuba or Zimbabwe.[63]

[edit] Republic of South Ossetia

On September 11, 2006, the South Ossetian Information and Press Committee announced that the republic would hold an independence referendum[10] (the first referendum had not been recognized by the international community as valid in 1992[64]) on 12 November 2006. The voters would decide on whether or not South Ossetia "should preserve its present de facto status of an independent state". Georgia denounced the move as a "political absurdity". However, on 13 September 2006, the Council of Europe (CoE) Secretary General Terry Davis commented on the problem, stating that it would be unlikely that anyone would accept the results of this referendum and instead urged South Ossetian government to engage in the negotiations with Georgia.[65] On 13 September 2006 European Union Special Representative to the South Caucasus, Peter Semneby, while visiting Moscow, said: "results of the South Ossetian independence referendum will have no meaning for the European Union".[66] Peter Semneby also added that this referendum would not contribute to the peaceful conflict resolution process in South Ossetia.

South Ossetians nearly unanimously approved a referendum on 12 November 2006 opting for independence from Georgia. The referendum was hugely popular, winning between 98 and 99 percent of the ballots, flag waving and celebration marked were seen across South Ossetia, but elsewhere observers were less enthusiastic. International critics claimed that the move could worsen regional tensions, and the Tbilisi government thoroughly discounted the results.

The People of South Ossetia for Peace was founded in October 2006 by the ethnic Ossetians who were outspoken critics and presented a serious opposition to secessionist authorities of Eduard Kokoity.

The group headed by the former defence minister and then prime minister of secessionist government Dmitry Sanakoyev organized the so-called alternative presidential election, on 12 November 2006– parallel to those held by the secessionist authorities in Tskhinvali.[15] High voter turnout was reported by the alternative electoral commission, which estimated over 42,000 voters from both Ossetian (Java district and Tskhinvali) and Georgian (Eredvi, Tamarasheni, etc.) communities of South Ossetia and Sanakoyev reportedly received 96% of the votes. Another referendum was organized shortly after asking for the start of negotiations with Georgia on a federal arrangement for South Ossetia received 94% support. However, People of South Ossetia for Peace turned down a request from a Georgian NGO, “Multinational Georgia”, to monitor it and the released results were very likely to be inflated.[43]

According to the International Crisis Group, "Georgian government’s steps are non-violent and development-oriented but their implementation is unilateral and so assertive that they are contributing to a perceptible and dangerous rise in tensions".[43]

Initially the entity of Sanakoyev was known as "the Alternative Government of South Ossetia", but during the course of 2007 the central authorities of Georgia decided to give it official status and on 13 April the formation of "Provisional Administration of South Ossetia" was announced.[67] On 10 May 2007 Dmitry Sanakoyev was appointed head of the provisional administrative entity in South Ossetia.[68]

An EU fact finding team visited the region in January 2007. Per Eklund, Head of the Delegation of the European Community to Georgia[5] said that “None of the two alternatives do we consider legitimate [in South Ossetia].”[69]

[edit] Geography

Topographic map of South Ossetia. (Polish transcription)

South Ossetia covers an area of about 3,900 km² on the southern side of the Caucasus, separated by the mountains from the more populous North Ossetia (part of Russia) and extending southwards almost to the Mtkvari river in Georgia. It is extremely mountainous, with most of the region lying over 1,000 m (3,300 ft) above sea level. Its economy is primarily agricultural, although less than 10% of South Ossetia's land area is cultivated. Cereals, fruit and vines are the major produce. Forestry and cattle industries are also maintained. A number of industrial facilities also exist, particularly around the capital Tskhinvali.

[edit] Demographics

Before the Georgian-Ossetian conflict roughly two-thirds of the population of South Ossetia was Ossetian and 25-30% was Georgian. The eastern quarter of the country, around the town and district of Akhalgori, is predominantly Georgian, while the center and west are predominantly Ossete. Much of the mountainous north is scarcely inhabited. (See map at Languages of the Caucasus.)

Because the statistical office of Georgia was not able to conduct the 2002 Georgian census in South Ossetia, the present composition of the population of South Ossetia is unknown,[70] although according to some estimates there were 45,000 ethnic Ossetians and 17,500 ethnic Georgians in South Ossetia in 2007.[71]

Ethnicity 1926 census 1939 census 1959 census 1970 census 1979 census 1989 census
Ossetians 60,351 (69.1%) 72,266 (68.1%) 63,698 (65.8%) 66,073 (66.5%) 65,077 (66.4%) 65,200 (66.2%)
Georgians 23,538 (26.9%) 27,525 (25.9%) 26,584 (27.5%) 28,125 (28.3%) 28,187 (28.8%) 28,700 (29.0%)
Russians 157 (0.2%) 2,111 (2.0%) 2,380 (2.5%) 1,574 (1.6%) 2,046 (2.1%) 2,128 (2.1%)
Armenians 1,374 (1.6%) 1,537 (1.4%) 1,555 (1.6%) 1,254 (1.3%) 953 (1.0%) 871 (1.21%)
Jews 1,739 (2.0%) 1,979 (1.9%) 1,723 (1.8%) 1,485 (1.5%) 654 (0.7%) 648 (0.9%)
Others 216 (0.2%) 700 (0.7%) 867 (0.9%) 910 (0.9%) 1,071 (1.1%) 1,400 (1.4%)
Total 87,375 106,118 96,807 99,421 97,988 99,000

[edit] Economy

Following a war with Georgia in the 1990s, South Ossetia has struggled economically. Employment and supplies are scarce. Additionally, Georgia cut off supplies of electricity to the region, which forced the South Ossetian government to run an electric cable through North Ossetia. The majority of the population survives on subsistence farming. Virtually the only significant economic asset that South Ossetia possesses is control of the Roki Tunnel that used to link Russia and Georgia, from which the South Ossetian government reportedly obtains as much as a third of its budget by levying customs duties on freight traffic.

In late 2006, a large international counterfeiting operation stretching from South Ossetia was revealed by U.S. Secret Service and Georgian police.[72][73]

South Ossetian GDP was estimated at US$ 15 million (US$ 250 per capita) in a work published in 2002.[74]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.
  2. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed.
  3. ^ The Foreign Policy of Russia: Changing Systems, Enduring Interests. Robert H. Donaldson, Joseph L. Nogee. M.E. Sharpe. 2005. pp. 199. ISBN 0765615681, 9780765615688. 
  4. ^ CNN, Tensions build as U.S. ship arrives in Georgia, 28 August 2008
  5. ^ a b West condemns Russia over Georgia, BBC, 26 August 2008
  6. ^ a b Scheffer ‘Rejects’ Russia’s Move, Civil.ge, 26 August 2008
  7. ^ a b CoE, PACE Chairs Condemn Russia’s Move, Civil Georgia, 26 August 2008
  8. ^ a b OSCE Chair Condemns Russia’s Recognition of Abkhazia, S.Ossetia, Civil Georgia, 26 August 2008
  9. ^ Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory. Civil Georgia. 2008-08-28.
  10. ^ a b Niko Mchedlishvili (September 11, 2006). "Georgian rebel region to vote on independence". Reuters. http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/articlenews.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2006-09-11T131034Z_01_L11486859_RTRUKOC_0_UK-GEORGIA-RUSSIA.xml&archived=False. 
  11. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  12. ^ 99% of South Ossetian voters approve independence Regnum
  13. ^ S.Ossetia Says ‘International Observers’ Arrive to Monitor Polls, Civil.ge, 11 November 2006
  14. ^ "S. Ossetia: 99% back independence". Associated Press (CNN.com). 13 November 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-11-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20061128192630/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/11/13/sossetia.independence.ap/index.html. 
  15. ^ a b Two Referendums and Two “Presidents” in South Ossetia - CAUCAZ.COM
  16. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  17. ^ Georgia’s Showcase in South Ossetia
  18. ^ Georgia Quits Mixed Control Commission - Kommersant Moscow
  19. ^ International Crisis Group - Georgia’s South Ossetia Conflict: Make Haste Slowl
  20. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  21. ^ Commission to Work on S.Ossetia Status. Civil Georgia 13 July 2007.
  22. ^ Emil Sanamyan (23 August 2008). "Chronology: Georgian-Ossetian conflict". The Armenian reporter. http://www.reporter.am/pages/2008-08-23/georgia-chronology.html. 
  23. ^ "[http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=GEO&sec_id=386&info_id=20704 Oct. 9, 2008 Amnesty International Satellite Images Reveal Damage to South Ossetian Villages After Major Fighting Ended]". 9 October 2008. http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=GEO&sec_id=386&info_id=20704. 
  24. ^ "August 8, 2008 Over 10 Russian peacekeepers killed in S.Ossetia". 8 August 2008. http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL8187260. 
  25. ^ "Russia to recognise breakaway region's independence". The Times. 2008-08-20. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4572733.ece. Retrieved on 2008-08-20. 
  26. ^ "Upper chamber backs independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia". Russia Today. 2008-08-25. http://www.russiatoday.com/news/news/29428. 
  27. ^ Andrew E. Kramer, Georgia and Russia Cut Diplomatic Ties, New York Times, 29 August 2008.
  28. ^ Reuters, UPDATE 1-EU faces tough test of unity on Russia, Forbes, 31 August 2008.
  29. ^ AP, Russia support for separatists could have ripples, New York Times, 31 August 2008.
  30. ^ a b Halpin, Tony (2008-08-30). "Kremlin announces that South Ossetia will join 'one united Russian state'". The Times (News Corp.). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4635843.ece. Retrieved on 2008-08-30. 
  31. ^ Damien McElroy. South Ossetian police tell Georgians to take a Russian passport, or leave their homes. The Daily Telegraph, 31 August 2008.
  32. ^ "Kokoity Reverses Remarks on S.Ossetia Joining Russia". Civil Georgia. September 11, 2008. http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19467. Retrieved on 2008-09-11. 
  33. ^ Nicaragua joins Russia in recognizing South Ossetia, Abkhazia, 3 September 2008
  34. ^ David Marshall Lang, The Georgians, New York, p. 239
  35. ^ Roger Rosen, History of Caucasus Nations, London, 2006
  36. ^ a b c (PDF) Georgia: Avoiding War in South Ossetia, International Crisis Group, 26 November 2004, ICG Europe Report 159, http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN019224.pdf, retrieved on 2008-08-13 
  37. ^ a b D.M. Lang, History of Modern Georgia, 1963
  38. ^ Crisis group 2007 Appendix D
  39. ^ http://www.caucasus.dk/chapter8.htm
  40. ^ Hastening The End of the Empire, Time Magazine, 28 January 1991
  41. ^ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, RUSSIA. THE INGUSH-OSSETIAN CONFLICT IN THE PRIGORODNYI REGION, May 1996.
  42. ^ The independence precedent: If Kosovo goes free The Economist, Nov 29th 2007
  43. ^ a b c Georgia’s South Ossetia Conflict: Make Haste Slowly, Europe Report N°183, 7 June 2007 (free registration needed to view full report)
  44. ^ Resolution on Peacekeepers Leaves Room for More Diplomacy. Civil Georgia. 2006-02-16.
  45. ^ U.S. Senator Urges Russian Peacekeepers’ Withdrawal From Georgian Breakaway Republics. (MosNews).
  46. ^ Russia 'not neutral' in Black Sea conflict, EU says, EUobserver, 10 October 2006.
  47. ^ Reported in Novosti, 5 June 2008.
  48. ^ Aljazeera.net report from multiple news agencies.
  49. ^ Six Die in S.Ossetia Shootout, Civil Georgia, 2 August 2008. (Google cache)
  50. ^ "Security Council holds third emergency meeting as South Ossetia conflict intensifies, expands to other parts of Georgia". http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/KLMT-7HE4KS?OpenDocument. 
  51. ^ The August War between Russia and Georgia Moscow Defense Brief
  52. ^ [1] Day-by-day: Georgia-Russia crisis
  53. ^ [2] Chronicle of the Second South-Ossetian War, in Russian
  54. '^ Analysis: Georgia's decision to shell Tskhinvali could prove 'reckless, Guardian
  55. ^ Ossetian crisis: Who started it?, BBC
  56. ^ [3] In Tskhinvali killed 15 peacemakers, in Russian
  57. ^ New York Times, 25 November 2008, "Ex-Diplomat Says Georgia Started War With Russia" http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/world/europe/26georgia.html
  58. ^ "Russian troops enter South Ossetia after Georgia offensive". AFP. 2008-08-08. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jGKb8-JI33G_pN5LerJd0MPWl8Jw. Retrieved on 2008-09-03. 
  59. ^ http://www.radionetherlands.nl/news/international/5911953/Russia-condemns-Georgian-military-operation "Russia condemns Georgian military operation", Radio Netherlands Worldwide
  60. ^ [4] A Single Point of Resistance Remains in Tskhinvali, in Russian
  61. ^ Reuters 8 August 2008: Georgia-Russia conflict could be drawn out
  62. ^ OSCE, 13th Meeting of the Ministerial Council (5 and 6 December 2005). Statement on Georgia (MC.DOC/4/05)
  63. ^ Worst of the Worst: The World’s Most Repressive Societies (PDF), Freedom House, March 2009
  64. ^ Civil Georgia, [S.Ossetia Sets Repeat Independence Referendum http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13522], 2006-09-11
  65. ^ Council of Europe Secretary General calls for talks instead of "referendum" in the Georgian region of South Ossetia. Council of Europe Information Office in Georgia. Retrieved on 13-09-2006.
  66. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  67. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  68. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  69. ^ Online Magazine - Civil Georgia
  70. ^ G. Tsuladze, N. Maglaperidze, A. Vadachkoria, Eds.,Demographic Yearbook of Georgia: 2001, Georgian Academy of Sciences: Institute of Demographic and Sociological Research (Tbilisi, 2002). This source reports that in January 2002 there were 37,000 Ossetians living in Georgia but excluding South Ossetia.
  71. ^ The Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. Georgia: a toponymic note concerning South Ossetia
  72. ^ Probe Traces Global Reach of Counterfeiting Ring. Washington Post. 26 November 2006.
  73. ^ Detention near Tskhinvali. Ministry of Defense of Georgia. 5 December. 2006.
  74. ^ Mamuka Areshidze, "Current Economic Causes of Conflict in Georgia", unpublished report for UK Department for International Development (DFID), 2002. Cited from Georgia: Avoiding War in South Ossetia by International Crisis Group, 26.11.2006

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